The Twins Research Centre strives to empower and educate families about their twin pregnancy, labour and delivery. In this area, we’ll provide an overview of common terms you will hear, as well as some common questions and address concerns you may have with your twin pregnancy.
Twin pregnancies can be described or classified in two ways. The first is in relation to zygosity (the initial number of fertilized eggs that resulted in a twin pregnancy), and the second is in relation to placentation (the number of placentas and amniotic sacs).
Zygosity refers to the genetic relationship between your twins. It stems from “zygote,” which refers to the single fertilized egg. There are two types of zygosity:
Opposite-sex twins (male and female) are always dizygotic. However, in the case of same-sex twins, determining whether they are identical (monozygotic) or non-identical (dizygotic) may require additional information, including ultrasound findings regarding chorionicity (as described below), blood type, or DNA analysis.
Placentation refers to the number of placentas (or chorionicity) and amniotic sacs (or amnionicity) that are present in the twin gestation.
Chorionicity
Chorionicity refers to whether each of your babies has their own placenta (known as dichorionic twins) or whether they share one placenta (monochorionic twins). It’s important to find out early on during your pregnancy whether your babies share a single placenta since this puts you and your babies at a higher risk of complications.
Amnionicity
Amnionicity refers to whether each of your babies is located within their own inner fluid-filled sac (known as diamniotic twins) or whether they share a single sac and thus have no membranes separating them (monoamniotic twins).
Relationship between zygosity, chorionicity, and amnionicity
Source: The Johns Hopkins Center for Fetal Therapy
Dizygotic (fraternal) twins would always be dichorionic and diamniotic, since each twin originates from a separate fertilized egg, each developing into a fetus with its own membranes and placenta.
In contrast, monozygotic (identical) twins may share the placenta or amniotic sac, depending on when the single zygote splits, since the two babies will have to share all the structures that developed before the split occurs. Thus, if the egg splits at a very early stage (usually within the first three days following fertilization, before the placenta begins to form), each baby will have its own placenta and amniotic sac, which results in dichorionic diamniotic twins. If the egg splits at a later stage (between days 3-8, when the placenta has already begun to form but the amniotic sac has not), the resulting twins will share the same placenta, resulting in monochorionic diamniotic twins. If the split happens even later (between days 8-13, at which time the amniotic sac was already formed), the two babies will share not only the placenta but also a single sac, resulting in monochorionic monoamniotic twins. Finally, in the rare event that the egg splits at an even later stage (after day 14, when the baby’s body has already started to develop), the two twins will share not only the same placenta and amniotic sac but also the body parts that were already formed at the time of the split, resulting in conjoined twins.
Both care providers and couples with twins occasionally get confused and assume that dichorionic twins (who have 2 separate placentas) are always non-identical (i.e., dizygotic). However, as described above and seen in the figure below, this is not always the case, and about a third of identical (monozygotic) twins will be dichorionic.
Twin pregnancies account for 1-2% of overall pregnancies. The incidence of triplets (and higher-order multifetal pregnancies such as quadruplets) is much lower, at approximately 0.08%.
The incidence of twin pregnancies is calculated by the number of twin pregnancies out of overall pregnancies per a given time period. It can also be estimated by Hellin’s Law (named after the German statistician Wilhelm Hellin), which is a mathematical formula. It says that for every 89 singleton prengnacies, there will be 1 twin pregnancy (1:89 ratio), for every 89 twin pregnancies there will be 1 triplet pregnancy etc.
In Canada, about 6000 sets of twins are born each year. In Sunnybrook, we take care of about 350 mothers with twins every year.
You are at increased risk of having a twin pregnancy if you:
When you’re carrying twins, you’re at greater risk for a number of complications. Because of this, you will be followed by an obstetrician or a special ‘high risk’ obstetrician called a “maternal fetal medicine specialist” (MFM). You are at a higher risk for:
This all may sound pretty scary, but the good news is that you and your health care team can lower your risk and identify any problems earlier, rather than later. You can then work with your health care providers to manage and minimize the impact of any complications. You can read more about all of these conditions below.
The results of genetic testing (as well as tests used in medicine, in general) can be classified into one of the following four options: true positive (TP), true negative (TN), false positive (FP), or false negative (FN).
A true positive test result – describes a case where the test is positive (i.e. a positive genetic screening test) and the patient indeed has the condition (i.e. the fetus does have Down’s syndrome).
A true negative test result – describes a case where the test is negative (i.e. a negative genetic screening test) and the patient indeed does not have the condition (i.e. the fetus does not have Down’s syndrome).
A false positive test result (‘false alarm’) – describes a case where the test is positive (i.e. a positive genetic screening test) but the patient does not have the condition (i.e. the fetus does not have Down’s syndrome).
A false negative test result describes a case where the condition was missed – the test is negative (i.e. a negative genetic screening test), but the patient does have the condition (i.e. the fetus does have Down’s syndrome).
Detection rate (also known as sensitivity) – is a measure of how good a test is at detecting the condition for which it is testing. In other words, it describes the proportion of pregnancies with the medical condition (i.e. Down’s syndrome) that would be picked up by the test. The higher the detection rate, the better the test is.
Detection rate = [true positives] / [total number of patients with the medical condition]
False-positive rate is a measure of how likely the test is to provide ‘false alarm’. The lower the false-positive rate, the better the test is.
False-positive rate = [false positives] / [total number of patients without the medical condition]
Genetic screening describes a variety of methods that can be used during pregnancy to estimate the risk that the fetus(es) has/have for certain genetic conditions, primarily Down’s syndrome. Down’s syndrome, also known as Trisomy 21, is one of the most common chromosomal abnormalities screened for during pregnancy, in which the fetus has an extra copy of chromosome 21 (i.e. 3 instead of 2 copies).
In twin pregnancies, genetic screening options are more complex compared to singleton pregnancies due to the presence of two fetuses, which can affect test accuracy and interpretation. The main methods include the enhanced first-trimester screening (eFTS), non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT), and invasive methods, such as amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS). Below we summarize these screening options, including their accuracy, benefits, and risks.
What is eFTS?
The eFTS is a test that is performed at 11-14 weeks and uses a variety of measures to estimate the risk of, primarily, trisomy 21. These measures include: (1) your age, (2) nuchal translucency, which is an ultrasound measurement of the fluid collection at the back of the baby’s neck, (3) blood work measuring levels of several biochemical markers, including human chorionic gonadotropin (bHCG), pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A), placental growth factor (PlGF), and maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (MS-AFP), and (4) demographic information including ethnicity, smoking status, and diabetes history. eFTS is the default prenatal genetic screening method for trisomy 21 in Ontario.
An example of ultrasound measuring nuchal translucency.
How accurate is eFTS?
eFTS primarily screens for trisomy 21, although it can also identify cases at risk of trisomy 18. The test reports the risk of trisomy 21 in the form of 1 in X (for example, 1:20 000, or a 1 in 20,000 chance of your fetus having trisomy 21). The threshold used in Ontario to define the test as ‘positive’ is 1:350 (or ~0.3%). With this threshold, the test detects about 90% of cases of trisomy 21, but there is a considerable false positive rate of approximately 5%.
It is important to remember that eFTS test results are not diagnostic. That means that the majority of patients who get a screen positive (i.e. a risk greater than 1:350) do NOT carry a fetus with trisomy 21, but that the risk is high enough to justify further testing using a more accurate screening test (i.e. NIPT – see below) or a diagnostic test (such as amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling, read more on these below) to know for sure.
How do I get eFTS? Is it covered by OHIP?
In Ontario, eFTS testing can be ordered by your obstetrician, family doctor, nurse practitioner, or midwife. It is always covered by OHIP. The turnaround time to get the results of this test is approximately 2 weeks.
eFTS in Twin Pregnancies
A few years ago, an audit conducted in Ontario found that the accuracy of the eFTS in twin pregnancies is considerably lower than in singleton pregnancies. As a result, the Government of Ontario has decided to fund NIPT for twin pregnancies. This means that if you are pregnant with twins in Ontario, you are eligible to perform the much more accurate NIPT test at no cost (read more below)!
What is NIPT?
NIPT uses cell-free DNA (cfDNA) for screening. cfDNA are small fragments of placental DNA that are circulating through the mother’s blood. These fragments are released when placental cells die through a normal process of cell turnover, and, as a result, are released into the maternal circulation (since the placenta is in direct contact with maternal blood).
Placental DNA is generally identical to that of the fetus (except for rare cases of placental mosaicism where the placental DNA is different than fetal DNA), so it allows us to detect various genetic conditions without directly testing the fetus, thus avoiding the need for invasive testing such as amniocentesis (see more below).
This test is generally based on ‘counting’ the number of fetal DNA fragments available from each chromosome (which is done by analyzing the DNA sequence of each fragment), with the rationale being that in cases of an extra fetal chromosome (e.g., trisomy 21), the number of fetal DNA fragments from this chromosome would be higher by ~50% (due to the presence of 3 copies of this specific chromosome), compared with DNA fragments from other chromosomes (which are present in only 2 copies). This test is most accurate for the detection of trisomy 21, but can also detect other chromosomal disorders, such as trisomy 18, trisomy 13, and sex-chromosome disorders. The latter also means that the test can tell you the sex of the fetus(es).
Because of the limitations of eFTS in twin pregnancies (described above), NIPT is currently the default prenatal screening test for trisomy 21 in twin pregnancies in Ontario.
How accurate is NIPT?
NIPT is much more accurate than eFTS, and its accuracy depends on the specific genetic abnormality. Most studies suggest that its accuracy in twin pregnancies is very similar to that achieved in singleton pregnancies. For example, it is able to detect over 99% of pregnancies affected by trisomy 21 (compared with ~90% in the case of eFTS), and the risk of a false positive result (false alarm) is only 0.1% (as compared to 5% in the case of eFTS).
NIPT provides one of the following three results: (1) ‘low risk’: there is less than a 1:10 000 risk of your fetus having trisomy 21; (2) ‘high risk’: there is a high risk that the fetus is affected by trisomy 21; or (3) no result: this can be due to various reasons including the insufficient amount of fetal DNA in the maternal blood (known as a low fetal fraction), or the fetus having a genetic abnormality that cannot be determined by this test. If you receive a ‘no result’, you may have your blood redrawn, be referred to a genetic specialist, or undergo other kinds of testing.
However, it is important to remember that NIPT test results are not diagnostic. That means that a positive result indicates a high risk that your fetus may have the genetic abnormality, but that you would need more invasive testing (amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling, read more on these below) to know for sure.
The turnaround time to get the results of this test is approximately 7-10 business days.
When should NIPT be done?
NIPT can be done any time in pregnancy, starting as early as 9- or 10-weeks of gestation. If you choose NIPT as your form of prenatal genetic testing, you do not need to do the less accurate eFTS test, although you should still have the nuchal translucency ultrasound at 11-14 weeks gestation.
How do I get NIPT? Is it covered by OHIP?
In Ontario, NIPT testing can be ordered by your obstetrician, family doctor, or nurse practitioner. At this time, it cannot be ordered by a midwife. Twin pregnancies have OHIP-funded NIPT, and you do not have to worry about paying out of pocket (this test usually costs up to ~$500). You cannot have NIPT if you are expecting more than two babies (i.e. triplets or quadruplets), or if you have a pregnancy complicated by “vanishing” twin syndrome (a twin pregnancy where one fetus was lost early in the first trimester), as the test may detect the lost fetus’ DNA.
Are there specific types of NIPT?
There are several commercial companies that offer NIPT testing using slightly different technology. While their accuracy is overall similar, there are certain scenarios where a specific test should be used, for example:
In contrast to eFTS and NIPT, which are screening tests, both CVS and amniocentesis are diagnostic tests since they gather direct fetal (or placental) DNA, which can be used for direct testing of any genetic abnormalities. In addition, unlike eFTS and NIPT, which are primarily focused on Down’s syndrome, CVS and amniocentesis allow for the identification of a much larger number of genetic abnormalities through tests such as chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA) and whole exome sequencing (WES). These tests are covered by OHIP, which means they are offered to you for free.
Advantages of invasive genetic testing
To better understand the additional information obtained through these invasive tests, we can think about our genetic material, which is arranged in 23 pairs of chromosomes (or 46 individual ones) as a bookshelf with 46 books.
Through a test called chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA), amniocentesis and CVS can identify small missing pieces (called microdeletions) or extra small pieces (called microduplications) of any of the chromosomes. Going back to the book analogy, this test can determine whether there are any missing or extra pages in any of the books. This test is done routinely when we perform amniocentesis or CVS, and is fully covered by OHIP.
By using more sophisticated tests such as whole exome sequencing (WES) or whole genome sequencing (WGS), we can ‘read’ through the entire genome to identify specific mutations in individual genes. Going back to the book analogy, these tests can determine whether there are any spelling errors in any of the pages in any of the books. This test is currently performed only in selected cases according to the recommendation of a geneticist and may involve some cost to the patient.
Risks of invasive genetic testing
Given their invasive nature, these tests are associated with a small risk of pregnancy loss, as described below for the specific tests. Although the risk is small, you should pay attention to certain symptoms after the procedure, such as leakage of vaginal fluid, pain, vaginal bleeding, contractions, or fever. If you encounter any of these symptoms, you should contact your obstetrician and present to the hospital. These complications tend to happen within the first 1-3 days following the procedure and are less likely to occur afterwards. Please note that experiencing mild cramping or vaginal spotting (in the case of CVS) after the procedure is quite common and normal.
When will I receive the results?
The initial results that detect the most common genetic abnormalities (like Down’s syndrome and other trisomy abnormalities) are usually available within 3-4 business days. The more detailed analysis (including the chromosomal microarray analysis) takes an additional ~10 business days. Any additional testing for specific mutations might take even longer.
Once we receive any results, we will contact you immediately to share them with you, so that you will not need to wait until the next clinic visit.
What is CVS?
CVS is one of the two invasive diagnostic tests available (along with amniocentesis which you can read more about below). The main benefit of this test is that it can be performed earlier in pregnancy (from 11-12 weeks of gestation), in contrast to amniocentesis which can performed only after 15 weeks.
In this test, a small sample of placenta (placental biopsy) is retrieved under ultrasound guidance. The sample can be taken transcervically, the most common approach, where the biopsy tool is passed through the vagina, cervix, and into the uterus with the use of a speculum and special biopsy forceps. Another approach, called transabdominal, is where a needle is passed through the skin into the uterus. Placental DNA is identical to that of the fetus (except in rare cases of confined placental mosaicism), so it allows us to detect any genetic conditions in the fetus. If you are having a dichorionic twin pregnancy (where there are two placentas), then a sample of each placenta will need to be taken, while in monochorionic twin pregnancies (where there is one placenta), we will only need a single sample.
Given its invasive nature, CVS is associated with a small (~1%) risk of pregnancy loss. The test is mainly suggested in cases where we identify a high risk of a genetic problem early in pregnancy (i.e. because the parents carry certain genetic mutations) or when the 12-week ultrasound detects a significant fetal abnormality.
How accurate is CVS?
CVS (as well as amniocentesis) is considered a diagnostic test, since it obtains a sample of fetal (or placental) DNA, which means it is extremely accurate. There is a small chance of a false positive result where the placental cell sample tests positive for an abnormality, but the fetus does not have it (in rare cases of confined placental mosaicism).
When should CVS be done?
CVS should be performed between 11 to 14 weeks gestation. Prior to 9 weeks, there is a higher risk of the test causing limb abnormalities in the baby.
What is amniocentesis?
Amniocentesis, similar to chorionic villus sampling (read more above), is a diagnostic test where a small sample of amniotic fluid is retrieved under ultrasound guidance. A thin needle is passed from the outside of your body through the skin, and into the uterus. The needle does not touch the baby. The fluid around the baby carries fetal cells that have its DNA which can be tested for genetic conditions. If you are having a diamniotic twin pregnancy (where there are two amniotic sacs), then a sample of each fetus’ fluid may need to be taken.
The main benefit of amniocentesis over CVS is that it is less likely to be associated with pregnancy loss. The risk of pregnancy loss has been traditionally quoted as 1:200 (or 0.5%), but more recent studies suggest that the risk is lower (i.e. 1:400-600, compared with ~1:100 for CVS), especially in experienced centers.
How accurate is amniocentesis?
Amniocentesis (as well as CVS) is considered a diagnostic test, since it obtains a sample of fetal (or placental) DNA, which means it is extremely accurate.
When should amniocentesis be done?
Amniocentesis can be done any time after 15 weeks of gestation.
Vanishing twin syndrome describes a twin pregnancy where one of the twin fetuses is lost early in the first trimester (usually before 10 weeks). This occurs in approximately 7-36% of twin pregnancies achieved through assisted reproductive technologies.
This syndrome can affect the accuracy of prenatal genetic screening tests. Even after the fetus has been lost, their genetic material, including their cell-free DNA can be detected in the maternal blood. Therefore, NIPT cannot be performed in cases of vanishing twin syndrome. Instead, you will undergo a similar but modified eFTS test (described above), called second-trimester screening. This includes: (1) nuchal translucency, which is an ultrasound measurement of the fluid collection at the back of the baby’s neck, and (2) blood work measuring levels of several biochemical markers, including human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (MS-AFP), Estriol, and Inhibin-A. The nuchal translucency ultrasound is still performed at 11-14 weeks of gestation, but the bloodwork is performed at 4-5 months of pregnancy, in the second trimester (between 14 weeks and 20 weeks + 6 days). It can only detect trisomy 21 and trisomy 18. It is OHIP-funded and almost as accurate as eFTS, but less accurate than NIPT.
Other options for genetic screening in cases of vanishing twin syndrome include the invasive diagnostic testing options described above, such as CVS and amniocentesis, with their associated high accuracy and minor risk of complications.
About 60% of twin babies will be born preterm (before 37 weeks of gestation). Being born early, especially before 32 weeks, can result in both short- and long-term complications. It’s not clear why twin babies are born early, but it’s believed to be, at least in part, due to the over-distension (or extra stretching) of the uterus.
Epidemiology
Below are some statistics adapted from Martin JA et al. (2021) showing the incidence of preterm birth and preeclampsia, as well as birthweight and gestational age at birth, by type of pregnancy.
| Outcome | Singletons | Twins | Triplets |
| Preterm birth<37 weeks | 8% | 60% | 99% |
| Preterm birth <34 weeks | 2% | 15-20% | 63% |
| Preterm birth <28 weeks | – | 4% | – |
| Average weeks of gestation at birth | 39 | 35-37 | 32-33 (quadruplets 30w) |
| Average birthweight | 3286g (7.2 lbs) | 2345g (5.2 lbs) | 1681g (3.7 lbs) |
| Birthweight <2500g (5.5 lbs) | 6% | 55% | 95% |
| Birthweight <1500g (3.3 lbs) | 1% | 9% | 34% |
| Preeclampsia | 4% | 8% | 10% |
Risks of preterm birth
Preterm babies are at higher risk of short- and long-term complications. At birth, they may have breathing and feeding difficulties, be at higher risk of infection or visual impairment, and have severe neurological and gastrointestinal complications. In the long term, they may experience growth delay or neurodevelopmental impairment.
Diagnosis
Preterm birth feels just like a regular birth, just early! Some things to look out for are contractions (which may feel like abdominal cramping, tightening, or period-like lower back pain), pelvic pressure, leakage of clear (amniotic) fluid, vaginal bleeding, or increased vaginal discharge. You should speak with your doctor or visit the hospital if you experience these symptoms.
Management of preterm birth
A mother’s cervix has to shorten and dilate during birth to allow for the baby’s head to pass from the uterus into the vaginal canal. Sometimes, the cervix shortens or dilates too early, a finding that increases the risk of preterm birth. At Sunnybrook’s Twins Clinic, we will measure your cervix via vaginal ultrasound every 2 weeks between 16 and 28 weeks gestation to detect if it is shortening or dilating. This allows us to detect such changes early on (before you experience any symptoms) and take actions that may decrease the risk of early delivery, such as the administration of vaginal progesterone (if the cervical length is below 25mm), or the use of a stitch to strengthen the cervix (known as cervical cerclage, if the cervical length is less than 15mm or the cervix is open).
Once preterm birth has already started, it cannot be stopped, but it can be slowed down to maximize the health of your babies. Drugs called tocolytics can be given to slow uterine contractions, allowing for more time to give your babies medications that help them thrive after birth. Examples are antenatal corticosteroids, which accelerate fetal lung development. If delivery is imminent, we may give you magnesium sulphate, which is a medication that helps protect the baby’s brain.
Fetal growth restriction (FGR) is defined as a failure for the baby to meet its growth potential due to a pathological process, most commonly a failure of the placenta to support fetal growth (known as placental insufficiency). In monochorionic twin pregnancies, a specific type of FGR occurs called selective fetal growth restriction (sFGR), which is discussed in more detail below (section 5).
Epidemiology
In singleton pregnancies, up to 10% of babies may be diagnosed with FGR. Twin babies grow slower than singletons starting at around 26-28 weeks of gestation. As a result, up to 30-50% of twin babies would be identified as small (and potentially growth-restricted) when their growth is evaluated using singleton growth charts. It is unclear, however, whether the slower growth of twins is due to a truly higher incidence of FGR due to placental insufficiency, or whether this is a benign physiologic adaptation of twin babies meant to reduce uterine over-stretching and, consequently, the risk of preterm birth.
More in the ‘How is FGR in twin pregnancies different than in singleton ones?’ section below!
Risks of FGR
Short term, FGR babies are at risk of mortality and morbidity, including respiratory, neurological, infectious, and gastrointestinal complications. Long-term complications of FGR include neurodevelopmental delay and increased risk of developing heart disease, high cholesterol, and diabetes later in life.
Diagnosis
When getting an ultrasound, the technician takes measurements of the fetal head circumference (size of the head), abdominal circumference (size of the tummy), and femur length. These measurements are used to calculate the estimated fetal weight (EFW). The EFW is then plotted on a growth chart against the gestational age, showing how big or small your baby is compared to other babies of that same gestational age. These growth charts are made from large population studies. If the EFW plots as less than the 10th percentile, then this condition is described as SGA (small for gestational age). In practical terms, being less than the 10th percentile means that compared to the rest of the population, 90% of babies at the same gestational age are larger than yours. In cases when the baby is below the 10th percentile (SGA), then FGR is suspected, which needs to be confirmed with additional testing such as ultrasound Doppler (which checks the blood flow to the placenta and in the baby’s blood vessels). Many SGA babies are not growth restricted, but are healthy constitutionally small babies meant to grow along this small size percentile. If your baby plots less than the 3rd percentile, then the diagnosis of FGR is very likely given that being below the 3rd percentile is much more likely to reflect underlying placental insufficiency.
FGR can also be classified by when it is detected during pregnancy. Early-onset FGR is detected before 32 weeks gestation, and late-onset FGR is detected at or after 32 weeks gestation. The reason for this distinction is that early-onset FGR tends to be more severe and is often associated with severe preeclampsia (more about this condition below in section 3!), while late-onset FGR tends to be more subtle and is often more challenging to diagnose.
Management of FGR
Management of FGR in dichorionic pregnancies is similar to the management of FGR in singleton pregnancies and includes the following:
How is FGR in twin pregnancies different than in singleton ones?
Twins are known to grow slower than singleton babies, but it remains unclear whether this represents a pathology (i.e. FGR from a failure of the placenta to support two babies) or normal benign adaptation in an attempt to decrease uterine stretching (and thereby decrease the risk of preterm birth). If it is a pathology, we should continue using singleton growth charts which are validated to identify FGR babies, but if it is a benign adaptation, we should use twin-specific charts to avoid overdiagnosis of FGR in twin pregnancies.
Therefore, our group looked further into this! We found that the use of twin-specific charts can reduce the number of twin fetuses wrongly diagnosed with FGR by up to 8-fold. They can also lead to a true diagnosis of FGR that is more clinically relevant to identifying twins who are at risk of complications due to placental insufficiency
Preeclampsia is a condition that is characterized by hypertension (high blood pressure) with proteinuria (protein in the urine) and/or injury to other organs, such as the liver or kidneys. In its most severe forms, it can also cause seizures (known as eclampsia). It is thought to be caused by a failure of the maternal blood vessels that supply the placenta (the spiral arteries) to adjust properly to pregnancy, resulting in insufficient blood supply to the placenta.
Epidemiology
Up to 10% of mothers with twins will be diagnosed with a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy, including either gestational hypertension or preeclampsia. Twin mothers are more than 2 to 4 times more likely to develop this disorder compared with singleton pregnancies. A study from our group found that 14.4% of twin mothers in Ontario developed a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy, compared with only 1.6% of mothers with a singleton pregnancy.
Risks of preeclampsia
Preeclampsia can be dangerous for both the mother and her babies. Babies can become growth-restricted, be born preterm, or have low amniotic fluid (oligohydramnios). Mothers are at risk of life-threatening complications, including liver and kidney injury, placental abruption, and development of seizures (eclampsia), which is an obstetrical emergency.
You are at higher risk of developing preeclampsia if you were diagnosed with preeclampsia during a previous pregnancy, if you are older, or if you have preexisting conditions such as chronic hypertension, kidney disease, or high body mass index. See the section below on prevention for a better understanding of how we can reduce the risk of recurrence of preeclampsia.
Diagnosis
Most mothers will be asymptomatic when they are diagnosed with preeclampsia and are found by chance to have high blood pressure and protein in the urine (proteinuria). In these cases, we would usually send blood work (such as blood count and liver and kidney function tests) to determine the severity of preeclampsia. In addition, Sunnybrook is one of the few centers in Ontario that has a special test (sFlt-1/PlGF ratio) that can confirm (or rule out) the diagnosis of preeclampsia in unclear cases and predict the risk of it becoming more severe.
Symptoms that should make you immediately seek medical attention include severe headache, blurry vision, abdominal pain, confusion, or shortness of breath.
Management of preeclampsia
The only cure for preeclampsia is delivery of the babies and the placenta(s). Management of preeclampsia depends on the severity of the disease, with the overall goal being to defer delivery as much as possible to minimize the risks of prematurity to the babies, while balancing the risks of the condition to the mother.
In cases of mild preeclampsia, delivery is commonly deferred until 37 weeks. Until then, we advise mothers to monitor their blood pressure at home and come to the hospital if the blood pressure increases above 150-160 mmHg systolic or 95-100 mmHg diastolic, or if they experience symptoms such as headache, blurry vision, or epigastric pain.
Blood pressure medications are often prescribed to control blood pressure levels (most commonly a drug called labetalol). These medications are safe in pregnancy! We also monitor the mother’s blood work periodically to check liver and kidney function to make sure that the preeclampsia hasn’t evolved to a more severe form.
In cases of severe preeclampsia, delivery may be indicated earlier, especially if the blood work becomes abnormal. HELLP syndrome (which stands for Hemolysis, Elevated Liver enzymes, and Low Platelets) is the most severe form of preeclampsia (although there is some academic debate as to whether they are two different conditions). Symptoms most commonly start between 28 to 37 weeks of gestation, but can also start later in pregnancy, and 30% of cases develop post-partum. Rest assured that this is an uncommon complication.
Can preeclampsia be prevented?
Research has shown that starting to take low-dose aspirin before 16 weeks of gestation (162 mg daily at bedtime) can substantially reduce the risk of severe preeclampsia. We will usually recommend aspirin if you have additional risk factors for preeclampsia, such as age over 35 years, elevated BMI, history of hypertension, diabetes, or a history of preeclampsia in a prior pregnancy. Ask your obstetrician before starting any medication.
I have preeclampsia, what should I do?
Regularly check in with your obstetrician for monitoring and know the signs which mean you should go seek medical attention immediately: severe or persistent headache, visual changes, new shortness of breath, right upper quadrant or epigastric pain. Additionally, any decrease in fetal movement, vaginal bleeding, abdominal pain, rupture of membranes, or regular uterine contractions should also be a sign to go to your nearest medical centre.
How is preeclampsia in twin pregnancies different than singleton ones?
Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as glucose intolerance (high blood sugar) that is first recognized during pregnancy. GDM is believed to be caused by a combination of maternal predisposition (such as high insulin resistance or mild failure of the pancreas to secrete insulin) along with the physiologic increase in insulin resistance that occurs in pregnancy under the influence of pregnancy hormones.
Epidemiology
GDM affects approximately 6 to 10% of all pregnancies in North America, and specifically 3 to 9% of twin pregnancies. A large study by our group found that twin pregnancies are more likely to be affected by GDM, although this finding was limited to cases of mild GDM that can be controlled by diet (GDMA1), and was not observed for the more severe form of GDM that requires medications or insulin (GDMA2).
Risks of GDM
Since glucose readily crosses the placenta, elevated maternal blood glucose results in elevated glucose levels in the baby, as well. This, in turn, may accelerate fetal growth and result in a large baby (known as macrosomia). After birth, babies may experience a sudden drop in their blood sugar levels known as hypoglycemia, which can be dangerous.
Mothers who have been diagnosed with GDM are more likely to develop type II diabetes later in life. Several studies have also found a link between babies born to mothers with GDM and the development of obesity and type II diabetes in the baby later in life.
Diagnosis
Your obstetrician will refer you for a blood test at around 24 weeks of gestation. Briefly, the test involves drinking a sugary orange drink, waiting one hour, and then having a blood draw. Your blood will be tested for sugar levels, and depending on the number, you may receive the following results: 1) a diagnosis of GDM, 2) a confirmation that you do not have GDM, 3) an equivocal result that requires more testing using a longer test.
More details can be found here.
Management of GDM
First, you will meet with a dietician and discuss lifestyle and nutritional changes that can help manage your blood sugar without medications. For example, your plan may include the ideal number of meals daily (usually three moderate-sized ones with two snacks) and an exercise schedule (usually 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise per week). You will also receive a glucometer (a device used to measure your blood sugar through a finger prick) and be asked to measure and document your blood sugars 4 times a day (in the morning when waking up, and 1-2 hours after each meal).
For some mothers, lifestyle changes won’t be enough to keep blood sugar levels within target ranges. In these cases, we may offer medications such as metformin or insulin.
It’s important to have a personalized lifestyle and meal plan, as well as an obstetrician following your GDM to make sure that you and your babies are receiving the best care possible.
How is GDM in twin pregnancies different than singleton ones?
Interestingly, research coming out of our group has found that GDM may be overdiagnosed in twin pregnancies, and that the risk of having too-large babies or other complications may not be as pronounced compared to singleton pregnancies. We have also found that mild GDM in twin pregnancies is less likely to be associated with complications than in singleton pregnancies, and may actually reduce the risk for having a too-small baby which is common in twin pregnancies. However, you should still be closely monitored for complications.
TTTS is a severe complication that affects monochorionic twins, as their shared placenta means that their circulatory systems are connected. Sometimes, the blood vessel connections in the placenta are imbalanced, causing one twin to persistently push blood to or receive extra blood from the other twin. The syndrome is characterized by a low levels of amniotic fluid (oligohydramnios) around one twin (the ‘donor twin’) and too much amniotic fluid (polyhydramnios) around the other twin (the ‘recipient twin’). If untreated, this condition poses considerable risks to both the donor and recipient twin.
Epidemiology
It is estimated that 9 to 15% of monochorionic diamniotic and 6% of monochorionic monoamniotic twin pregnancies will be complicated by TTTS, most commonly presenting between 16 and 26 weeks of gestation. In addition, there is a relatively rare and sudden type of TTTS (intrapartum TTTS) that affects 1.5 to 2.5% of monochorionic pregnancies during labour, regardless of whether the birth was vaginal or a c-section. This type of TTTS results in a rapid and large intertwin blood transfusion from donor to recipient, causing the donor to have too many red blood cells (polycythemia) and the recipient to have too little red blood cells (anemia). The donor twin may also go into shock from the sudden loss of fluid (hypovolemic shock).
Risks of TTTS
TTTS is a severe complication of pregnancy and can result in organ failure and the potential death of either twin. You may also be at higher risk of preterm birth due to the overstretching of the uterus (by the excessive amount of amniotic fluid around the recipient twin) and cervical shortening. Read more about preterm birth in the section above to learn about how that risk is managed!
Diagnosis
If you have a monochorionic twin pregnancy, you will have an ultrasound at least every two weeks throughout pregnancy to allow the detection of TTTS. The first sign of TTTS will be difference in the levels of amniotic fluid between the two babies. More advanced stages include include abnormalities in blood flow to the placenta (detected by ultrasound Doppler studies) and signs of fetal heart failure. In addition, the babies will have a fetal echocardiogram, which is a special ultrasound to detect congenital fetal heart malformations which are more common in monochorionic twins.
Maternal symptoms of TTTS include shortness of breath, premature contractions, and abdominal discomfort, caused from the rapid overstretching of the uterus due to the extra amniotic fluid.
TTTS management will depend on the stage of the syndrome, classified as stages I to V:
Management
The main procedure used to treat TTTS is fetoscopic laser ablation. It involves inserting a small camera called a fetoscope into the uterus through the mother’s abdomen along with a laser device that is used to destroy (or ablate) the placental blood vessels connecting the two twins. The procedure is done in the operating room under general anaesthesia. Risks of the procedure include preterm prelabor rupture of membranes (PPROM, where the amniotic sac breaks resulting in vaginal leakage of fluid), disruption of the membranes separating the two twins (which can result in entanglement of the umbilical cords of the two babies), and twin anemia polycythemia sequence (TAPS, discussed below).
Source: Mayo Clinic
TAPS is a severe complication that affects monochorionic twins, as their shared placenta means that their circulatory systems are connected. You can think of TAPS as a ‘mild form of TTTS’ where the placental connections between the two twins are very small and therefore do not result in differences in fluid (as seen in TTTS) but instead in a very gradual difference in blood hemoglobin (or red blood cells). Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout our bodies to keep our organs functioning via a molecule called hemoglobin. Consequently, this condition is characterized by anemia in one of the twins (less red blood cells and too little hemoglobin to carry oxygen to the organs) and polycythemia (too many red blood cells and too much hemoglobin) in the other.
Source: Radiopaedia
Epidemiology
Spontaneous TAPS is reported in 3 to 6% of monochorionic diamniotic pregnancies. It can also very rarely occur in monozygotic dichorionic pregnancies if there are shared blood vessels between the two placentas. TAPS can also occur post-laser ablation for the treatment TTTS (discussed above) if the laser ablation leaves out small vessels that can allow for the exchange of red blood cells.
Risks of TAPS
The twin with polycythemia has lots of red blood cells which thickens the blood and makes it appear sludge-like. This can cause blood clots and damage the baby’s organs and brain if it stops blood from reaching them. The twin with anemia may develop heart failure. Both twins are at risk of passing away in-utero as a result of this condition. Long-term, there is also a higher risk of adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes.
Diagnosis
Middle cerebral artery-peak systolic velocity (MCV-PSV) is a Doppler measurement that can diagnose anemia and polycythemia in utero. It is based on the idea that, in cases of anemia, the blood flow is more watery (less thick) and will therefore flow faster, the same way water flows faster than oil. Other ultrasound findings include difference in thickness and color of placenta with a clear demarcation between the twins’ territories, a large heart (cardiomegaly) and fluid overload (ascites) in the donor twin, and a certain appearance on the recipient twins’ liver on ultrasound called a starry sky.
Sometimes the diagnosis is not made until after birth. At that time, TAPS may be suspected if one twin is very pale and the other is red (their respective side of the placenta will show the same colour imbalance). Blood testing can reveal that one twin is anemic and the other is polycythemic, and placental testing may show shared small blood vessels that allow unidirectional flow.
Myung et al. (2016)
Management of TAPS depends on the stage:
Management
The treatment options in cases of TAPS involve fetoscopic laser ablation or intrauterine blood transfusion. Your obstetrician will help you make a decision on the best treatment option based on the stage of TAPS, your health, and the health of your babies.
Selective fetal growth restriction (sFGR) occurs when one twin is considerably smaller than the other. The most commonly used definition is that the smaller twin’s estimated weight is below the 10th percentile for gestational age, and that size difference between the twins is greater than 25%.
The size difference is calculated as follows: [WeightOfLargerTwin – WeightOfSmallerTwin] / [WeightOfLargerTwin] x100)
Epidemiology
About 10-15% of monochorionic pregnancies may be affected by sFGR. There is a substantial overlap between sFGR, TTTS, and TAPS, which means that a monochorionic twin pregnancy may be affected by both TTTS and sFGR.
Cause of sFGR
sFGR is thought to happen when the placenta is not shared equally between the two twins (e.g., instead of each twin receiving ~50% of the placental territory, one twin receives only 30%, while the other one 70% of the placental territory). It is thought that the placental connections between the two twins are essential to support and sustain the smaller twin.
Source: TAPS Support
Risks of sFGR
Pregnancies complicated by sFGR are at risk of preterm birth and in-utero demise of the smaller twin (which can also result in in-utero demise of the second twin as well).
Diagnosis and classification
If you have a monochorionic twin pregnancy, you will have an ultrasound at least every two weeks in your second trimester, where the team will estimate the weight of each twin and calculate the size difference between them. As mentioned above, the classic definition of sFGR is that the smaller twin’s estimated weight is below the 10th percentile for gestational age, and the size difference between the twins is greater than 25%. A more recent definition is based on the following criteria:
(i) Estimated fetal weight of less than the 3rd percentile of one twin
OR
At least two of the following:
(i) Estimated fetal weight of less than the 10th percentile of one twin
(ii) Abdominal circumference of less than the 10th percentile of one twin
(iii) Umbelical artery pulsatility index greater than 95th percentile of the smaller twin
(ib) A weight difference between the twins that is greater than or equal to 25%
sFGR is classified into one of three types, based on the by the pattern of the umbilical artery (UA) Doppler in the smaller twin:
Type 1 sFGR: Persistently forward UA end-diastolic velocity without variation in the waveform with normal or elevated resistance. This type is the mildest and has the best outcomes.
Type 2 sFGR: Fixed absent or fixed reversed UA end-diastolic velocity without variation of the waveform in the smaller twin. This type is the most severe form and carries the greatest risk of fetal demise and preterm birth.
Type 3 sFGR: Characterized by UA waveform that has a variable flow pattern that cycles between forward, absent, and reversed flow over a short interval (also called intermittent absent/reversed end-diastolic flow). This is thought to be the result of a larger placental arterial vessel connecting the two twins (large artery-to-artery [AA] anastomosis). While the overall outcomes of cases with type 3 sFGR is considered better than that of type 2 sFGR (since the large AA anastomosis can provide more support to the smaller twin), the outcome in this type is less predictable and there is a greater risk of unpredictable course with sudden demise of one or both twins, as well as greater risk of neurological deficits after birth due to sudden pressure changes through the large AA anastomosis.
Management
The treatment in cases of sFGR depends on the type and severity. It involves close surveillance as an outpatient or on an inpatient basis and early delivery when there are signs of imminent demise of the smaller twin. In more severe cases, other treatment options may be considered including selective termination of the smaller twin or fetoscopic laser ablation. The management of these cases is complex and should be done in a specialized tertiary center experienced in the care of twin pregnancies.
In MC/MA twin pregnancies, there is nothing separating the two babies from each other. Consequently, the twins’ umbilical cords may wrap around each other. This is called . Cord entanglement occurs in almost all MC/MA twin pregnancies. They may occur as early as the first trimester, and incidence increases with increasing gestational age as the babies can move around more and accidentally twist their cords.
In most cases, cord entanglements remain loose and do not cause a problem. However, in some cases, the entanglement might become tight and interrupt blood flow to one or both twins. This can result in a sudden and unpredictable demise of both twins. Studies estimate the overall risk of fetal demise at approximately 18%; however, the risk decreases gradually with increasing gestational age and is lower during the 3rd trimester.
While cord entanglement can be seen on ultrasound, it is not possible to determine whether the entanglement is loose or tight, which makes it very challenging to identify the cases where the risk of fetal demise is increased.
Source: UWorld
Management
Given that there is no intervention for cord entanglement, the management is based on close surveillance of the babies, with the intention of detecting early signs early signs of tightening that would allow for an urgent delivery by a cesarean section. However, it remains unclear whether the best strategy for close surveillance is through admission to the hospital and observation as an inpatient, versus less frequent monitoring as an outpatient. A recent meta-analysis suggested that the risk of fetal death is lower with inpatient surveillance compared with outpatient management (3% vs. 7.4%).
At Sunnybrook, we offer patients the following management options, highlighting the pros and cons of each option, and make a shared decision regarding the management plan:
Combination of the two management strategies – some patients may choose to be followed initially as an outpatient and then be admitted to the hospital later in gestation (e.g. at 28 or 30 weeks).
Irrespective of the surveillance strategy chosen, the delivery via c-section is scheduled for 33 weeks, as this gestational age has been shown to offer the optimal balance between the risks of fetal demise (in the case that delivery is deferred) and the small risks of prematurity at that gestational age.
MC/MA twins also have a high risk of structural anomalies, up to 25%. It is likely that the splitting of the embryo at such a late stage (after day 8) increases the chance of congenital anomalies. Therefore, all MC/MA twins will undergo an early anatomy scan and fetal echocardiogram (before 14-15 weeks’ gestation) to allow for a timely detection of such anomalies.
Conjoined twins are twins whose body parts have fused together. Conjoined twins occur when the single embryo splits at an even later stage than in the case of MC/MA twins, at a point where fetal structures have already started to develop. As a result, the two twins will have to share those body parts that had already started developing by that time. There is great variation in the degree and the type of fusion.
Epidemiology
Conjoined twins are rare, with an incidence of approximately 8 out of 100,000 births. However, it is likely that their incidence is underestimated, given that many of these pregnancies result in early miscarriage before the diagnosis of conjoined twins can be made.
Risks of conjoined twins
There is a high risk of stillbirth with conjoined twins, as well as congenital abnormalities. In addition, conjoined twins born alive often require. For example, separation surgeries for thoraco-omphalopagus conjoined twins (joined at the thorax and anterior abdominal wall, most common with approximately 75% of conjoined twins) may involve separation of the sac around their hearts and their gastrointestinal tracts. Tissue expanders can be used to stretch the existing skin to later have enough for both twins. The extent of surgery and type are unique to the specific twin pair and which of their body parts and organs are fused.
Diagnosis
Conjoined twins can be seen on ultrasound, which you will be undergoing routinely during your pregnancy. Additional imaging such as color Doppler, fetal echocardiography, 3D ultrasound, and fetal MRI may be used to confirm the diagnosis, clarify anatomy, and help with decision-making (e.g. for surgical planning).
Management
Many specialists are involved in the care of these pregnancies. This includes your obstetrician, who is also an expert in maternal-fetal medicine, a pediatric surgeon, a neonatologist, and a radiologist.
Single fetal demise occurs when one fetus passes away in utero in a twin pregnancy. The risk of this condition is between 0.5–6.8%. The loss of one twin can cause serious complications to the second co-twin that is still alive, especially in monochorionic twin pregnancies, who share a single placenta. The risk is highest when this occurs in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy.
In monochorionic twin pregnancies, the shared placenta has vascular anastomoses, which are blood vessels that connect the circulation of the two twins. The in-utero demise of one twin can result in a rapid blood transfer from the alive (second) twin to the demised twin (which now has no circulation) through these anastomoses. As a result, the second twin can experience a sudden drop in blood pressure and anemia (little red blood cells and oxygen), which can result in a 25% risk of stroke (neurological injury) or a 15% risk of death.
These complications occur almost immediately following the demise of the first twin, which means that by the time the demise has been detected, the injury to the second twin has already taken place and cannot be prevented. Therefore, monochorionic twin pregnancies in which one of the twins is at risk of demise (i.e. due to severe placental insufficiency, TTTS (see above), or congenital, genetic, or structural disorders) should be monitored closely, and the team should intervene before the demise takes places. Possible preventative interventions may include selective termination (where the fetus at risk of demise is terminated in a controlled manner such that it does not affect the second twin) or a laser procedure that ablates the placental anastomoses, thereby disconnecting the circulations of the two twins.
In cases of single fetal demise, we will monitor the well-being of the surviving twin closely. This includes assessment of the fetal brain through ultrasound and fetal MRI for signs of brain injury.
There isn’t a lot of evidence to link restricting exercise and physical activity, or leaving work early, with preventing preterm labour in women pregnant with twins. However, some physicians recommend that women pregnant with twins should restrict physical exercise after 28 weeks.
We routinely monitor the length of your cervix during pregnancy. Having a cervical shortening increases the risk of preterm birth. In cases in which the cervix is found to be short or in the case of preterm contractions we will advise that you restrict physical activity.
Check out this calculator from perinatology.com
Intimacy is an important part of your relationship with your partner. Sexual activity is not discouraged in twin pregnancies, unless there are complications that your healthcare provider has discussed with you.
Sunnybrook’s Twins Clinic recommends against sexual intercourse if you have both a short cervix and are pregnant with twins, especially in cases with severe or early-onset cervical shortening.
Twin and triplet pregnancies have been associated with an increased risk for complications, primarily preterm birth. The increased risk for preterm birth may have individuals pregnant with twins and their providers concerned that intercourse may prompt preterm labor or delivery. The anxiety may be even greater in women with twins who are thought to be an increased risk of preterm birth, such as those with a short or dilated cervix.
If you experience discomfort related to sex during your twin pregnancy, avoid lying on your back during intercourse after the fourth month of pregnancy. Try different positions to reduce pressure and use a personal lubricant to help with dryness.
If you notice pain, bleeding, abnormal discharge, or contractions after sex, we recommend you call your healthcare provider.
And remember, intimacy goes beyond sexual intercourse—it is not just sex. Intimacy is about closeness, about being together, and about creating and maintaining a relationship.
If you have any questions about sexual activity during your twin pregnancy, do not hesitate to ask your healthcare provider at your next prenatal visit.
Weight Gain in a Twin Pregnancy
One of the first questions many pregnant individuals have is: “How much weight should I gain while pregnant?”
Your weight gain during pregnancy is made up of weight gain related to YOU (increase in body water, increase in size of the breast tissue and your uterus, and increase in fat mass) and YOUR BABIES (placenta, amniotic fluid, and, of course, your twins).
Too much or not enough weight gain may increase the risk of some conditions in pregnancy. Gaining too much weight while pregnant might lead to gestational diabetes and preeclampsia. On the other hand, gaining too little weight might lead to preterm birth and might slow down the growth of the babies.
When you’re pregnant with twins, you are already at a higher risk for the complications described above (preterm birth, gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, and fetal growth restriction). Therefore, meeting weight gain targets during pregnancy and reaching the increased nutritional demands of a twin pregnancy may help decrease the risk of these complications.
We’re here to help!
Existing guidelines provide detailed recommendations on the ideal weight in SINGLETON pregnancies. However, when it comes to TWIN pregnancies, professional societies provide very little guidance on the ideal amount of weight gain. Therefore, we conducted a series of studies in the Twins Clinic at Sunnybrook on the weight gain in twin pregnancies.
How do I track my weight gain?
To meet this knowledge gap, the team at the Sunnybrook Twins Clinic has conducted developed a series of studies to determine the optimal weight gain your weight gain during pregnancy (see above).
The recommended weight gain in twin pregnancies is based on your pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI), which is calculated as your weight (in kg) divided by squared height (in m): You can calculate your pre-pregnancy BMI here.
Once you know what BMI category you are in, use the following table to guide your weight gain throughout pregnancy:
| BMI Group
Pre-pregnancy |
Recommended total weight gain at 37 weeks | Recommended weekly weight gain |
| Underweight or normal weight (BMI<25.0 kg/m2) |
16.8-24.5 kg
or |
0.45-0.66 kg per week
or |
| Overweight (BMI 25.0-29.9 kg/m2) |
14.1-22.7 kg
or |
0.38-0.61 kg per week
or |
| Obese (BMI≥30.0 kg/m2) |
11.3-19.1 kg
or |
0.31-0.52 kg per week
or |
BMI, body mass index
We also developed a tool that can help you track your weight gain during pregnancy. The weight gain charts can be seen below, and you can use this link to use the calculator we developed for that purpose.
In the Twins Clinic, we will monitor your weight gain together throughout pregnancy. In cases of insufficient or excessive weight gain, we will offer you a referral to our dietitian to discuss ways to optimize weight gain.
Nutrition
When pregnant with twins, trying to get a balanced diet with enough protein, carbohydrates, calcium, and energy is important for your and your babies’ health.
Protein
Protein helps with babies’ growth and supports your needs while carrying them. We developed a calculator to help you calculate the protein requirements, specifically in twin pregnancies.
A woman pregnant with twins needs an extra 50 grams of protein each day compared to someone pregnant with one baby.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate needs are also higher in twin pregnancy. We recommend aiming for a minimum of 208 grams of carbohydrate daily to help with babies’ development, increase your weight gain, and to prevent ketones (a chemical your body makes when you don’t get enough carbohydrates).
Calcium
Getting enough calcium is important to help with growth and maintenance of bones and teeth for you and babies. It’s also important for helping to control blood pressure during pregnancy.
Nausea and Food Intake
It can be challenging to get enough food in if you are feeling nauseated or if your babies are not leaving you a lot of room in your stomach to eat. A couple of tips to help you get enough to eat include:
If you are finding it difficult to gain weight or get enough to eat, ask your care provider for a referral to a registered dietitian.
Getting enough protein during pregnancy will help support growth and development of your baby/babies while maintaining your muscle mass. You can use this link to access a tool we developed that can help you track your weight gain during pregnancy. Use the examples below to help meet your protein needs.
Poultry and Meat
A 3 ounce (85 gram) portion of meat or poultry is about the size and thickness of the palm or your hand and has the amount of protein listed below each image.
Some fish or seafood can be measured by comparing it to the palm of your hand. A 3 ounce (85 gram) cooked portion of fish or seafood is about the size and thickness of the palm of your hand. Other fish or seafood may be easier to portion using measuring cups or counting the pieces. The portions are listed here as is the amount of protein.
Other high protein foods may be easier to portion using measuring cups or spoons. The portions are listed here as is the amount of protein.
One of the common questions asked by women pregnant with twins relates to how they should give birth: a trial of vaginal twin delivery versus a planned caesarean section (CS). Each of the two options has pros and cons, and your decision should be based on several factors, including the presentation of the first twin (head down versus breech), your preference, and your future reproductive plans.
When the first twin is in a breech presentation (bum down), the recommendation is to deliver by a planned caesarean section (CS). This recommendation is based on a large study conducted over 20 years ago, the Term Breech Trial, that showed that for babies in breech presentation, a CS is safer than a trial of vaginal delivery.
When the first twin is in cephalic presentation (head down), you can choose between a trial of vaginal twin delivery and a planned CS.
Fetal presentations tend to change throughout pregnancy. In a study we conducted at Sunnybrook , we showed that it is only after approximately 32 weeks of gestation, when the babies are larger, that fetal presentations tend to remain stable and are unlikely to change. Therefore, 32 weeks is the ideal time to finalize the plans for mode of delivery.
In the case of a vaginal twin delivery, the delivery of the first twin is very similar to that of a singleton birth: you will spend most of the duration of labour in the birthing unit until your cervix is fully dilated, at which time you will be asked to bear down and push to deliver the first twin.
The more challenging part of the delivery is that of the second twin because of several complications that might arise after the delivery of the first twin. These complications can lead to distress of the second twin and require an urgent CS of the second twin, after the first twin was born vaginally. These complications include the separation of the placenta of the second twin (known as placental abruption) and prolapse of the umbilical cord of the second twin. The chance of these complications is approximately 5%, and because of that, the last part of twin deliveries is done in the operating room, which is set up for an emergency CS, in case it is needed. Thus, once the first twin is about to be delivered, we will ask you to stop pushing and transfer you to the operating room, where the delivery will be completed.
Once the first twin is born, we will perform an ultrasound to determine the presentation of the second twin:
In the event of acute distress of the second twin, the obstetrician might decide to perform an urgent CS (known as “combined delivery”).
Clearly, the major question relates to which option is safest for the babies. The Twin Birth Study, which was a large randomized controlled trial published in 2013, showed that among twins greater than 32 weeks of gestation, where the first twin was head down and both babies were of relatively similar weight, the risk of death or serious complications for the babies was not different between planned vaginal delivery and a planned CS. Therefore, the study suggests that both options are equally safe for the babies.
The advantages and disadvantages of each option are summarized in the table below.
| Vaginal twin delivery | Planned CS | |
| Pros | If successful, vaginal delivery is associated with an easier recovery and a lower risk of complications. | A more controlled option, which some couples find less stressful than a trial of vaginal delivery. |
| Cons | There is a greater risk of needing an urgent CS (even before the delivery of the first twin) compared to singleton deliveries, due to an increased risk of failure to progress (prolonged labour) or acute distress of either of the twins. According to a recent study we completed at Sunnybrook, the risk of urgent CS is 22% in twins compared with 16% in singleton pregnancies.
There is an approximately 5% risk of a combined delivery (i.e. requiring an emergency CS after the first twin was born via vaginal delivery), which might be a stressful experience for the couple. |
Overall, CS is associated with a greater risk of complications compared to a vaginal delivery (including bleeding, infection).
Slower recovery as compared with a vaginal delivery. |
Aside from personal preference, there are several factors that may help you decide on whether to choose a planned CS or a trial of vaginal delivery:
The standard way to calculate the difference in the size of the babies (size discordance) is by dividing the difference in the estimated weights of the babies by the weight of the larger twin, expressed as a percentage. For example, in a case where the estimated fetal weights are 1900 grams for the first twin and 2500 grams for the second twin, the size discordance would be (2500g-1900g)/2500g = 600g/2500g = 24%. The cutoff of size discordance above which CS should be recommended is unclear, but many clinicians use the cutoff of 25% for that purpose.
Twin pregnancies are unique, and the timing of delivery is carefully determined to ensure the best outcomes for both you and the babies.
In singleton pregnancies, allowing the pregnancy to go beyond 41 weeks can increase the risk of complications, including stillbirth, since the placenta often becomes less efficient at providing oxygen and nutrients to the baby after that gestational age. For that reason, induction of labor is generally recommended for singleton pregnancies by 41-42 weeks.
In twin pregnancies, the risk of placental failure and stillbirth begins to arise earlier than 41 weeks, due to the greater challenge involved in supporting two babies. Because of that, most professional societies, including the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada (SOGC), recommend that twins should be delivered at 37-38 weeks in the case of dichorionic twin pregnancies, at 36-37 weeks in the case of monochorionic diamniotic twins, and at 32-34 weeks in the case of monochorionic monoamniotic twins.
This information is reflected in national guidelines: No. 440, No. 428, review of guidelines
It’s completely normal for even loving parents to worry about mixing up their twins. The key is to put simple, realistic systems in place to distinguish your babies day-to-day. Below we’ve compiled age-specific strategies, drawn from expert advice and twin parenting communities. Remember that as your twins grow, it will get easier to tell them apart.
Newborns (0–3 Months)
Newborn identical twins are often virtually indistinguishable, with few, if any, physical differences. In this stage, you’ll rely mostly on external, temporary newborn-safe techniques:
Pros: Instant visual cue for everyone (even at 3 AM) and helps later when looking back at photos.
Cons: Requires consistency to avoid accidental outfit swaps.
Pros: Stays on around the clock.
Cons: Newborns grow quickly – bands can get tight and need constant resizing.
Safety: Use only baby-safe bracelets that won’t fray or break, with no small parts that pose a choking hazard. Place on the ankle over footed pajamas rather than the wrist if possible, so that the baby can’t easily chew it, and you can see it without undressing them.
Pros: This is a short-term identifier that gets updated every diaper change, which is great to prevent confusion if you lose track during the night. It’s also invisible when clothed.
Cons: It only helps when the diaper is accessible (during changes) and you need to remember to keep using the correct letter each time!
Pros: Lasts several days to a week and doesn’t interfere with clothes or safe sleep. Because it’s on a toe, the baby won’t ingest it or notice it.
Cons: It must be checked and reapplied regularly as the polish can wear off.
Safety: Only use nontoxic polish meant for infants, and stick to toes (to avoid any chance of the baby chewing on a painted fingernail).
Pros: This routine reduces mix-ups during hectic tasks, as twins are always in a specific spot, so you associate that spot with their identity.
Cons: Requires diligence to maintain the pattern (particularly if others move the babies). And it’s only a supplemental method, you’ll still want a physical identifier on the babies in case they get moved or passed around.
Pros: Helps others (grandparents, babysitters) and reduces the chance of accidentally swapping belongings.
Cons: Must be placed where it can be seen without fully undressing the baby (shoulder or chest area), and remember to move name labels if you swap outfits between twins.
Pros: These differences are permanent or long-term, and you can always double-check the birthmark or unique feature if you’re unsure.
Cons: Many newborn differences are extremely subtle (or one twin’s birthmark might fade over months). More of a backup method early on, but it becomes useful as differences become more pronounced.
General safety: Avoid any method that could pose a risk. For instance, do not use pins or sharp objects on clothing (no pinned name tags, use stickers or iron-ons instead). If using ribbons or bands, make sure they aren’t too tight or able to slip off easily (a too-loose ribbon could entangle a baby’s neck or hand). Always monitor any banding to prevent it from becoming too tight as the baby grows. Avoid any harsh chemicals, like writing on the baby’s skin with a marker.
General tips: Consider keeping a daily twins log or checklist during the newborn phase to track each baby’s feedings, diaper changes, or medications on paper or an app. This forces you to pause and ensure you know who is who at critical moments. For example, a simple chart with two columns (one for each twin) can prevent accidentally giving the same baby two feeds.
Infants (4–12 Months)
By about 4 to 12 months, your twins are more active and starting to show a bit of personality. You might have learned to tell them apart by subtle cues, but it’s still easy to get confused, especially if they’re dressed alike or if multiple caregivers are involved. You can continue updating the older methods used (like colour coding new bibs or getting permanent and smooth-edged bracelets with their names on them) or try some new strategies!
Cons: Not all infants have enough hair to style. And any hair accessory must be baby-safe (no tiny clips that can be swallowed; use soft cloth headbands sparingly and never during sleep or unsupervised time to avoid choking/strangulation hazards).
Pros: These features are naturally occurring markers and will only become more pronounced with time. No extra work needed once you spot them.
Cons: To outsiders, these differences may still be too subtle.
General tips: Remember to stay adaptable and flexible, as babies grow fast and their needs may change. If a method isn’t working (e.g., one twin keeps pulling off their colored sock), try another approach, such as a soft ankle bracelet or a dab of polish again. It can also help to do a “twin ID check” each morning, for example, as you dress them. Make a mental note or even a quick note in a journal, “Blue star outfit = Oliver today,” so you start the day confident of who is who. Encourage extended family or daycare providers to use name labels and not rely solely on guessing. And don’t worry, by the end of this first year, you will likely be the expert on telling your babies apart!
Toddlers (1–3 Years)
Toddlers develop individual personalities, preferences, and often physical distinctions (like different mannerisms, or one becomes taller than the other), and even their voices and the way they talk or move will start to differ. That said, identical twin toddlers can still fool new acquaintances, and they might even enjoy swapping identities for fun! Here are strategies to balance more long-term methods while fostering each child’s budding individuality:
Pros: Reinforces seeing your twins as individuals, and others (like preschool teachers) will pick up on these cues over time.
Cons: Personalities aren’t visible in a quick encounter, so new people will still need visual hints. During meltdowns or sleepy times, personality cues might blur (both toddlers screaming look pretty similar!).
Pros: When each child consistently picks different outfits, it’s an organic way to tell them apart (and they learn their own style).
Cons: Twins may sometimes insist on dressing identically, which is fine occasionally. In those cases, you might fall back on other cues like hair or accessories that day.
Pros: A haircut is a long-term solution – it stays in place every day and doesn’t rely on what outfit they have on. It’s especially useful in group settings like daycare.
Cons: You’ll need to maintain the distinct styles with regular trims. Also, some twins may later want to have the same hairstyle. Treat these differences as helpful but not something that must be enforced if a child expresses otherwise.
Pros: Differentiates their belongings and helps them learn ownership.
Cons: Toddlers also love to trade and play tricks, so don’t be surprised if one toddler hands you the other’s named cup just to confuse you. Supervise any accessory that could pose a hazard (e.g., necklaces should be avoided at this age due to strangulation risk).
General safety: As twins become more independent, ensure that any method you continue using is age-appropriate. For example, if you were still relying on painted toenails, know that toddlers might notice and try to peel or chew them, so you may drop that method. Avoid using any method that might impede their movement or play (no ankle bands that could catch on playground equipment, etc.).
General tips: At this age, it’s often enough to keep distinct hair/clothing and let their own differences shine. Also, be prepared for the day your identical twins realize they can trick people by swapping outfits or pretending to be each other! Encourage honesty, but also appreciate the humor, it means they understand how alike they appear to others.
Final Tips
Distinguishing between identical twins at home requires a mix of creativity, consistency, and adaptation. Early on, you rely on intentional identifiers like color-coded clothes, labels, or safe marks. As they grow, those external aids can gradually give way to innate differences and the twins’ own preferences. There’s no one “right” way; some families even keep a system of specific color wristbands until they feel confident, while others find they just “know” by a certain age and don’t need markers. Do what works for your family, and don’t worry about what others might think.
Remember, even the most organized parents will occasionally call a twin by the wrong name or second-guess themselves; it’s a common slip that happens in the chaos of parenting multiples. If a mix-up does happen, take a breath and be kind to yourself. By using the practical strategies above and adjusting as your twins develop, you’ll minimize mix-ups and gain confidence each day.
Helpful informal resources: